Fast Food Advertisements Essay - 1002 Words

The power advertisements have to influence decisions and affect people’s lives is astounding. They are meant to be big, bright, and flashy to try and attract people to buy their products. Ads are also impossible to avoid. You cannot walk down the street, watch television, or browse the internet without seeing ads all over the place. The problem with this is that younger people can be too easily swayed by these ads and the results have many negative consequences. These upbeat and catchy commercials are luring kids into the habit of eating unhealthily and this should be prevented. The fast food industry takes advantage of this influence over children and is a large factor in the obesity problem America faces today. Fast food chains give†¦show more content†¦Breakfast should be a healthy meal to help start the day off right, but what could be unhealthier than starting off with a bacon, egg, and cheese sandwich from a fast food restaurant? Pester power refers to childrens ability to nag their parents into purchasing items they may not otherwise buy. Children nowadays have a greater influence over their parent’s decisions than they used to. According to one study, 78 per cent stated that seeing an advertisement on television made them want to buy the product sometimes or often. Asked if they ever pestered their parents for something they had seen advertised on television, 66 per cent reported doing so sometimes or often (Marshall et al 170). Given the economic trouble that some families are in today some parents might be talked into the cheaper option of fast food, and this is exactly what advertisers want. Another study investigated the possible link between obesity and indebtedness and found: Analysis of the data showed that a link between over-indebtedness and obesity did exist. Whats more, this relationship could not be explained by other socioeconomic variables that have been linked to poor health in other studies. Specifically, obesity had a higher prevalence among over-indebted people compared to the general population, even when this association was adjusted for confounding factors (level of education,Show MoreRelatedFast Food Advertisement Regulations1959 Words   |  8 PagesZachary Buerkle November 12, 2012 Is fast food the new tobacco? Should government further regulate fast food advertisements as done with tobacco advertisements? On June 22 of 2010, over ten years of intensive planning from the FDA would finally result in the extensive regulation of the $89 billion tobacco industry. Although the newly created laws could not illegalize nicotine or tobacco, the FDA was given vast authority to regulate the ingredients in tobacco products as well as the way theyRead MoreThe Impact Of Nutrition Information On Advertisement Of Fast Food Chains Essay1313 Words   |  6 PagesThe impacts of nutrition information on advertisement of fast food chains The fast food industry in the U.S. has rapidly expanded in the past few decades (Hwang, 2013). In 2014, the industry has created a 3% current value growth, indicating its robust and continued ability in the U.S. market overall (Euromonitor, 2015). This strong increase has largely changed Americans’ lifestyle and eating habits; the amount of money they spend on fast food is more than that on education, readings and videos (SchlosserRead MoreFast Food Advertisements Should Be Banned872 Words   |  4 Pagesdiscussions of fast food ads, one controversial issue has been that fast food ads can be held responsible for childhood obesity. On the other hand, most people contend that fast food ads shouldn’t be banned because there are a lot of people who love fast food. Others even maintain that if people banned fast food ads, children will go more into the drugs instead of fast food. My own view is that fast food ads shouldn’t be banned. I know that fast food ads can man ipulate children and adults to buy food whichRead MoreThe Negative Influence Of Fast Food Advertisements2025 Words   |  9 PagesInfluence of Fast Food Advertisements We all know that watching TV is bad. In fact, young children should not watch more than 2 hours of TV every day. The interesting fact is that we don t actually realize the seriousness of watching TV. Parents usually think that young children should not focus on a screen for more than a couple hours because it is not good for their eyes, but there is actually a much bigger issue about watching TV. Companies specifically design fast food advertisement to pushRead MoreHow Are Teenagers Affected By Advertisements For Fast Food?1468 Words   |  6 Pages Nowadays, the increasing number of companies decide to boost the investment of advertisements in order to propagandize the new products more effectively and efficiently. Munusamy and Wong argue that advertising has become one of the important elements in our modern life (Munusamy and Wong). According to the most recent forecast of US advertising spending, eMarketer expects US advertisers to spend $171.01 billion on paid media this year, up 3.6% over 2012 spending levels (US Total Media Ad SpendRead MoreFast-Food Advertising Causes Obesity Essay1395 Words   |  6 Pagesyouth or children who eat from fast food restaurants have a big risk for becoming overweight. Some research shows that greater familiarity with fast food advertising on television is associated with obesity in young people (Pediatric Academic Societies parag.1). It is known that these children and adolescents are being extremely exposed to fast food advertising including the internet, social media, and particularly on television. The marketer and owners of these fast food restaurants use many techniquesRead MoreThe Problem Of Childhood Obesity1261 Words   |  6 Pagesanswer is simple: fast food is convenient. Fast food restaurants are located just about everywhere, and it is extremely simple to find one on every corner. In his article â€Å"Don’t Blame the Eater†, David Zinczenko explains that growing up â€Å"lunch and dinner†¦was a daily choice between McDonald’s, Taco Bell, Kentucky Fried Chicken, or Pizza Hut† (241). The author indicates that these are still the only available options for children to get an affordable meal. Zinczenk explains that fast food has not changedRead MoreAdvertisement For The New Bk Super Seven Incher865 Words   |  4 PagesThe photo that I chose for the assignment is an advertisement for the new BK SUPER SEVEN INCHER. The photo depicts a woman who’s emotion appears to be shocked. They show the woman’s mouth wide o pen with the burger directly across from it as though she s looking at it with awe. The advertisement is meant to be portray a sexual message being as though the burger represents the male figure. The fast food restaurant uses words to describe their burger in a sexual way by using persuasive words suchRead MoreHealthy Fast Food1003 Words   |  5 Pagesturn on the television or radio and not be hit with advertisements introducing the latest fast food trend Ââ€" fresh and healthy food options. More often, the media bombards us with slogans such as Subway s common pitch to eat fresh or McDonald s million-dollar advertisement campaign to try the new fruit and walnut salad. Attention has made an abrupt turn from the greasy, deep-fried originals at the fast food chains to more health conscious food choices. Even a documentary of a man named MorganRead MoreThe World Through Listening Without Judgement, And Acts On Faith Essay1365 Words   |  6 Pagesthat stuck out to me the most was advertisements in the fast food industries. Every time an individual watches live TV, they are being exposed to some form of advertisement. Advertisement is all around us; however, we may not notice it as much as we should. Many large industries have some form of advertisement, whether it be a short clip on TV, a picture in a paper, or an audio message on the radio. I am interested in this topic because I am exposed to advertisement every day in some form or fashion

New Questions About Research Papers Samples Answered and Why You Must Read Every Word of This Report

New Questions About Research Papers Samples Answered and Why You Must Read Every Word of This Report When you buy a pre-written paper, you aren't likely to find the opportunity to revise your paper. Our writers offer brand-new papers based on brand-new data. In the sphere of legal jargon different terminology maybe unfamiliar to you and unique sources may not be something which you regularly site. All our papers are produced from scratch by professionals and provided at our custom made law writing service at quite affordable prices. The Basic Facts of Research Papers Samples On the way, take notes of the essential information and key findings that you wish to highlight in your paper. It's for this reason and many more than searching for a research paper sample can definitely help you. Your draft is your very first outline about what to include in the last summary. You also understand how to transition from 1 section of the paper to another. The thesis statement ought to be complete, and the remainder of the paper ought to be in line with it. Your summary needs to be in a position to stand alone despite it being a region of the research paper. Remember that it is just an overview of your research paper as a whole. Utilizing an outline template can assist the student organize the paper and eliminate the ideas that aren't pertinent to the use of the essay. It is not unusual to have unanticipated results which aren't pertinent to answering the research question. You have to explain in detail the duration of your scientific research and describe the interim outcomes. A research paper involves surveying a field of knowledge so as to get the best possible data in that area. When you're tasked with developing a legal research paper it can be quite tough to know precisely the way the info you wish to include ought to be organized and how to correctly cite the legal references that you're using. The Debate Over Research Papers Samples Among the features of a thriving college student is the ability to discover folks to connect with over time. While the instructor and students aren't located in the same area, they are interacting and communicating at precisely the same moment. Around the world, they can join the same class, share information, and learn together. A whole lot of students don't figure out how to cope with educational overload. Research Papers Samples - What Is It? These research paper samples are offered for your perusal which you are able to download and use for your present research paper. Paraphrase the information which you need to put in your research paper. In order to start outlining the research paper, determine why you're researching the subject. It occurs more frequently in longer papers because it assists the reader to better understand each finding. The End of Research Papers Samples A couple are still students. Learners did not have the chance to communicate to gether. To relieve a little the pressure, some students go online to look for example research papers. The primary purpose of example research papers is to assist students learn to develop their own assignment and to fully grasp how a paper is structured. It's possible to find more information about students' term papers here. Students can't pick the very first idea they see on the internet or in the print media it's about choosing great research paper topics on the relevant difficulties. Research Papers SamplesCheck our latest paper helper review and get the best professionals to aid with your papers. Because most research advisers read through all your paper, it can readily be identified in case you have copy-pasted parts from your research and might offer you a lousy grade. Today it is not hard to locate occupational therapists who tout the neural significance of crawling. Links researchers from all over the world.

The Great Gatsby and the tainted American Dream Essay Example For Students

The Great Gatsby and the tainted American Dream Essay Benjamin Franklin coined the phrase, American Dream during the early infancy of our country, proposing this dream as, That pursuit of a better existence and a higher quality of life through hard work, determination, and devotion. While this may be what many of the characters in The Great Gatsby believe (Jay Gatsby in particular), one critical ideal is discarded in Fitzgeralds twisted refinement of Franklins definition: morality. It is apparent that Jay Gatsby achieves his wealth and social status through illegal and immoral means, such as bootlegging alcohol. The irony becomes remarkably stunning when one realizes that the section of Franklins autobiography, which outlines his method for achieving this dream, is entitled Moral Perfection. Fitzgerald presents a dark satire by portraying the immoral Jay Gatsby as an icon for the decay of the dream Franklin proposed and promoted so avidly. Fitzgerald masterfully allows the reader watch the evolution of Franklins American dream from its fertilization in the ambition of James Gatz to its dominance over Gatzs life, eventually spawning Jay Gatsby (Gatz-bye) a self-destructive man holding on to a dream that can never become a reality. In addition to Gatsbys delusional pursuit of happiness, Nick Carraway, our narrator, suffers from the same addiction to a dream, which, if made true, will never live up to its expectations. It is obvious that Nick envies Gatsby, hence the title of the novel. Nick is in awe of Gatsbys wealth, social power and moreover, and most of all, the carefree lifestyle it allows. Nick, at the same time he is completely unaware of the illicit means by which Gatsby has gained his wealth. Following Gatsbys death at the end of the novel, Fitzgerald shows Nicks awakening from his dream to persuade the reader to walk away from his novel understanding the lesson that Nick learns from Gatsbys folly. Fitzgerald strives to expose a striking realization that the American dream that Franklin proposed will never be able to deliver its promise of a better existence in a society where morality is tossed aside so casually. Fitzgerald litters the novel with a cast of characters who are struggling to chase either emotionless dreams or impossible ones. All of these other characters suffer from this plague of disillusionment that has come to be known as a staple in modernist writing. Morality seems critical, by Franklins standards, to the success of his American Dream, but when one looks through the novel, searching for characters that are morally sound, one will find that they are few and far between. We, the readers, are witness to multiple adulterous affairs, murder, illegal alcohol use, as well as a lack of camaraderie between friends. Fitzgeralds diagnosis that decadence is the real killer of the American dream manifests itself in many characters and in many ways throughout The Great Gatsby. The most obvious is Gatsby whos dream is to come back from his time spent in the armed forces, much wealthier than he left, with the hope that his newfound wealth will allow him to win back the heart of Daisy who he left behind. When Gatsby left he didnt have the financial power to secure Daisys devotion to him, for she became much more interested in the material possessions than love, which made her vulnerable to Tom Buchanans wealthy appeal. Gatsby sees that the only way he can reclaim her is by impressing her with a fortune . Gatsby becomes so intent on accomplishing this goal that in his mind the ends justify the means, without question. We are never told exactly how Gatsby procures his wealth, except that it most likely from illegal bootlegging and perhaps some ties to the mafia. This is Gatsbys first major deviation, chronologically, from Franklins American Dream. Next, he turns his back on our narrator, Nick, who offers to help him achieve his goal by arranging a meeting with Daisy. Gatsby, whos self-indulgence blinds him to ignorance, practically treats Nick as a pimp instead of a friend, thinking all the while that hes being quite sincere and helping Nick, who is not as well off as himself. In the opening of chapter five, Nick and Gatsby meet in front of Gatsbys mansion where Nick informs Gatsby that hes going to arrange for Daisy to arrive the following day for tea. At the end of the conversation, Gatsby decides to suggest his indecent proposal of some work on the side to Nick. We both looked down at the grass there was a sharp line where my ragged lawn ended and the darker, well-kept expanse of his began. I suspected that he Gatsby meant my grass. Theres another little thing, he said uncertainly, and hesitated. Would you rather put it off a few days? I asked Oh, it isnt about that. At leastHe fumbled with a series of beginnings. Why, I thought why, look here, old sport, you dont make much money, do you? Not very much. This seemed to reassure him and he continued more confidently. I thought you didnt, if youll pardon my you see, I carry on a little business on the side, a sort of a sideline, you understand. And I thought that if you dont make very much Youre selling bonds, arent you, old sport? Trying to. Well this would interest you. It wouldnt take up much of your time and you might pick up a nice bit of money. Naming and describing plant parts Essay Faithfulness is only inherent in one married person in the book, George Wilson, but George has his own personality flaws and ends up committing a deadly sin of his own wrath. He has trouble controlling his temper and eventually snaps after he wife is killed and murders Gatsby and commits suicide. George is the only one that seems to have lost his dream a long time ago, when his wife began resenting him, then cheating on him, and has turned to religion to find happiness. He claims, after believing that Tom killed Myrtle, that, God sees everything. George has lost faith in the world for some time and it seems as though hes only living for the next life, which is proven by the fact that he is able to kill himself. The only people who dont really seem to be emotionally scarred, or killed by the events that take place in the novel are the surviving women in the book. Daisys dream is money, though as we know, it wasnt always that way. Jordan is likewise interested in material objects and not that concerned with love, although in the end we get a hint that maybe things will turn around for her and Nick. Overall, however, she is almost as guilty as Daisy for being naively drawn into the well of commercialistic coldness. Daisy seems to be able to leave Gatsby behind as a memory, though we dont know for sure that she is severely hurt by his death, or to what degree. We can speculate that her absence from Gatsbys funeral would suggest a lack of emotional burden. At the end of the novel, we dont really get any indication as to how Daisy ends up, and its hard to say because of the way she leaves with Tom in a situation that is foreign to the reader because for the first time neither one is interested in someone else. We can assume, however, based on Fitzgeralds message, that if Daisy never realizes that money cant buy happiness or love, she will be stuck chasing a dream that cannot be attained for the rest of her life. The same is true for Jordan, although we do get a suggestive hint that she may turn around because Nick has been enlightened, and now has a better understanding of the dangers that come with becoming obsessive over the impossible or the unimportant. Tom is yet another ambiguity when it comes to the end of the novel. There is no way to say what will become of him, although it seems hes got more reason than any to see the need for a change in his attitude on life. He came the closest to loosing everything, without actually doing it. He almost lost his wife to Gatsby and he did loose his mistress, though he was lucky not to loose his wife on account of his cheating. It seems that the significance of his disappearance with Daisy is meant to suggest that they have gone off to start a new life, but then again maybe its just to chase new dreams. This novel is able to adequately show the dangers involved in chasing a dream that is too fantastic, or purely material. Gatsby paid for his naive dream chasing with his life and his dream, not to mention the pain he caused those around him and close to him. This is evident because of the fact that only a few people show up to his funeral. He cared for only one person, who didnt really care for him, at least not to the same degree. Nick is lucky, by Fitzgeralds standards at least, because he is able to look inward, unlike the most of the other characters, and see what that kind of obsession is doing to Gatsby. He despises Gatsby too much to help him, but remains a friend out of pity and takes the knowledge he has gained to see where he could have ended up had he followed Gatsby and taken that job offer. Tom and Daisy both suffer from the sins of gluttony and avarice that dominate their dreams of happiness, they cant get away from thinking that the more they own the happier theyll be. This can be seen in the way Tom mourns little for Myrtle, but only worries about himself when George comes to see him after Myrtles death. If he feels a little hurt its because hell have to go out and find another mistress, and we cant say for sure whether or not he will. Fitzgerald is bent on making sure the readers take away one message, there is no more American dream. He doesnt stop there though, he goes on to warn his readers that if you dont believe him and decide chase your personal American dream and shoot too high or too low, you will end up miserable, possibly for the rest of your life. Lastly, there is no doubt that this novels message about the decay of the American dream is solely focused on an audience facing some of the most vastly changing times in our civilizations history and a warning that just like Jay Gatsby found out, there is no way to reclaim the past, that American dream, Franklins American dream is gone.

Why is the Great Wall of China built an Example of the Topic History Essays by

Why is the Great Wall of China built? Great Wall of China is one of the eight wonders in the world and it is significant to know of why the great wall was built. The primary reasons are territorial boundary and protection during the war. Historians and archeologists explain further the beginning grounds of this spinning dragon spanning across the whole ChinaThe Great Wall. Need essay sample on "Why is the Great Wall of China built?" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed University Students Usually Tell EssayLab support: Who wants to write paper for me? Essay writers advise: Get Your Essay Before The Deadline Best Essay Writing Service Reviews Writers For Hire Best Essay Writing Service Write My Essay Online Historically, The Great Wall is the world's longest human-made structure, stretching over approximately 6,400 km (4,000 miles) from Shanhaiguan in the east to Lop Nur in the west, along an arc that roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia, but stretches to over 6,700 km (4,160 miles) in total (Britannica 2007). It is also the largest human-made structure ever built in terms of surface area and mass. At its peak the Ming Wall was guarded by more than one million men. It has been estimated that somewhere in the range of 2 to 3 million Chinese died as part of the centuries-long project of building the wall. The first major wall was built during the reign of the First Emperor, the main emperor of the short-lived Qin dynasty. This wall was not constructed as a single endeavor, but rather was created by the joining of several regional walls built by the Warring States. It was located much further north than the current Great Wall, and very little remains of it. A defensive wall on the northern border was built and maintained by several dynasties at different times in Chinese history. The Great Wall that can still be seen today was built during the Ming Dynasty, on a much larger scale and with longer lasting materials, solid stone used for the sides and the top of the Wall, than any wall that had been built before. The primary purpose of the wall was not to keep out people, who could scale the wall, but to insure that semi-nomadic people on the outside of the wall could not cross with their horses or return easily with stolen property (China Highlights, 1998). The Great Wall is not just a wall. Other defensive works such as forts, passes and beacon towers were built along the Wall to house auxiliary soldiers, store grain and weapons, and transmit military information. As a product of the clashes between agricultural and nomadic economies, the Great Wall provided protection to the economic development and cultural progress, safeguarded the trading routes such as the Silk Road, and secured transmission of information and transportation. Further, The Great Wall of China is a series of stone and earthen fortifications in China, built, rebuilt, and maintained between the 5th century BC and the 16th century to protect the northern borders of the Chinese Empire during the rule of successive dynasties. Several walls, referred to as the Great Wall of China, were built since the 5th century BC. The most famous is the wall built between 220 BC and 200 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang; little of it remains; it was much farther north than the current wall, which was built during the Ming Dynasty. Since this wall is a centuries-long project, the wall is divided into four major walls which represent the dynasty of the century. First, the Qin Dynasty, 208 BC. Second, the Han Dynasty, 1st century BC then followed by the Five dynasties and Ten kingdoms period during 1138-1198, lastly is the Hongwu Emperor until Wanli Emperor of the Ming Dynasty from 1368-1620 (Britannica 2007). The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of the Spring and Autumn Period, which began around the 7th century BC. During the Warring States Period from the 5th century BC to 221 BC, the states of Qi, Yan and Zhao all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears, these walls were made mostly by stamping earth and gravel between board frames. Qin Shi Huang conquered all opposing states and unified China in 221 BC, establishing the Qin Dynasty. Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords, he ordered the destruction of the wall sections that divided his empire along the former state borders. To protect the empire against intrusions by the Xiongnu people from the north, he ordered the building of a new wall to connect the remaining fortifications along the empire's new northern frontier. Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult, so builders always tried to use local resources. Stones from the mountains were used over mountain ranges, while rammed earth was used for construction in the plains. The peasants who died working were buried inside the wall, to be unearthed later by archaeologists. There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin Dynasty walls. Most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and very few sections remain today. Possibly as many as one million people died building the Wall under the Qin Dynasty (Zimmerman, 1997). Later, the Han, Sui, Northern and Jin dynasties all repaired, rebuilt, or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders. The Great Wall concept was revived again during the Ming Dynasty following the Ming army's defeat by the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu in 1449. The Ming had failed to gain a clear upper-hand over the Mongols after successive battles, and the long-drawn conflict was taking a toll on the empire. The Ming adopted a new strategy to keep the nomadic Mongols out by constructing walls along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert's southern edge instead of incorporating the bend of the Huang He. Unlike the earlier Qin fortifications, the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth. As Mongol raids continued periodically over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinforce the walls. Sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strong (Zimmerman, 1997). Towards the end of the Shun Dynasty, the Great Wall helped defend the empire against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Under the military command of Yuan Chonghuan, the Ming army held off the Manchus at the heavily fortified Shanhaiguan pass, preventing the Manchus from entering the Liaodong Peninsula and the Chinese heartland. The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, when the gates at Shanhaiguan were opened by Wu Sangui, a Ming border general who disliked the activities of rulers of the Shun Dynasty. The Manchus quickly seized Beijing, and defeated the newly founded Shun Dynasty and remaining Ming resistance, to establish the Qing Dynasty. Under Qing rule, China's borders extended beyond the walls and Mongolia was annexed into the empire, so construction and repairs on the Great Wall were discontinued. A counterpart wall to the Great Wall in the south was erected to protect and divide the Chinese from the 'southern barbarians' called Miao (meaning barbaric and nomadic). The making in general is really a true and pure determination. It handed from period to period. The 4 major walls that are initiated from the great leaders are truly a product of heroic and valiant. Political, territorial, economic and social bases were their motivating grounds of why they made the great wall. Indeed, its a history. Today the world has completely changed. No wall can withhold the progress that modern science has brought about the lives of people. The Great Wall has lost its former function. However, it must not be forgotten the real value and essence of it. It was a long project century as said, it marks a record and so everyone is welcome to make better understanding of great wall, and to better protect the precious remains for the generations to come. Reference: ICE Case Studies: The Great Wall of China, Damian Zimmerman, December 1997 "Encyclopedia Britannica online - Great wall of China". The Great Wall of China. https://maas.museum/ .2007

Nike Consumers demand Strategies Essay Example

Nike Consumers demand Strategies Essay Example Nike Consumers demand Strategies Essay Nike Consumers demand Strategies Essay Consumers demand In fact, the overseas market accounts for a high proportion in Nines total sales. Until last year, Nines international market sales beyond the U. S. Market sales lasting for four years, but the U. S. Market still the Nicks largest market. Although 61 % of Nines revenue from athlete shoes and Nikkei occupies 45 percent of the U. S. Athletic shoe market cannot help but be influenced by consumers demand to owning another pair of sneakers. Nikkei is not the only one in suffering from American customers new preference with alternative footwear like hiking shoes and leather boots. Aids and Rebook have experienced a difficult time too. Nikkei has got a shock and decreased total sales due to the global financial crises in 2008 and 2009. Nines total sales declined from $19. 08 billion in fiscal 2009 to $18. 96 billion in fiscal 201 0, just a little higher than the year 2008 (18. 63 billion). In Mark Parsers leadership, Nikkei builds up sports fashion as the companys core business, until recently, people still believe that Nikkei can achieve this goal is simply unbelievable as its corporate culture of male chauvinism . In the Past 3 years, Nikkei air Max apparel sales rose 30% in the world due to the impetus fashion sportswear, in fiscal 2010, 2011 201 2, the companys total sales reached 18. 96, 20. 89, 24. 12 billion U. S. Dollars separately. Without doubt, Nikkei still needs to deal with many challenges. In the united States, to meet growing market demand, Puma, K-Swiss, Diesel and other manufacturers introduced retro-style sneakers. In Europe, Nikkei high-end shoes sales experienced a dramatic rise for many years began to decrease. The Aids Salomon also made the best of opening up North America basketball markets, Nines market share account for 60%. In the imitation of Aids, Nikkei shoo shoes, contracted with three NAB All-Star team players: Kevin Garnett, Tracy Macerate and Tim Duncan will wear Aids sneakers. In the other hand, Nikkei makes effort to meet the youngsters needs of sports and leisure shoes and understand their psychological desire and lifestyle, so it developed the new innovative products, like Nikkei Lowborn X and Nikkei Air Max 90 and promotional events, from first to last, it always try to stand in the first row to lead consumption trends and meet the consumers demand. The strategies of the firm to increase sales Targeting strategies Nikkei adopts a host of strategies to target the immediate consumers like sportsmen and other athletes. Nines targeting strategies include the sponsorship by famous athletes, professional and college athletic teams. These targeting strategies are successful because it can reach a host of sportsmen. The trainees have no choice other than to buy a specific type of Nikkei shoes if the athletic team manager requires it. The teams have to buy and supply the shoes in a large amount to the team members as well. The second strategy is Nikkei designs its product destination. It does this by associating success with the products. For example, the brand will be linked with success when a famous athlete is sponsored of a specific brand of athletic shoes and this psychological effect is enhanced with advertisements. The third strategy is Nikkei targets the consumers who are tend to develop product intimacy; those who concern more about the products quality and utility and than the price. (Frank, 2004, p. 173) Pricing Strategies Nikkei focuses more on the consumers who embrace product intimacy and has high loyalty and concern less about the products price. Nikkei can set relatively Geiger prices than other competitors due to this strategy. This strategy called for higher pricing thus to boost the perceived product value. Consumers are tending to pay the high price when they consider a product of high value and it has been proved. Consumers associate themselves with the product and will pay any price offered of it with the Nikkei logo on it when they develop product intimacy (Goldman S, 2000, Pl 54). Promotional and Communication Strategies In addition to the quality products Nikkei sells which have result in higher customer loyalty, Nines promotional strategies are simply excellent. Nikkei has signed a host of famous and professional athletes so as to attract a considerable attention to their products. Some of the athletes contracted by Nikkei include basketball players such as Carmine ONeal and Lebanon James, soccer stars like Ronald and Reinhold and golf superstar Tiger Woods. This act has increased awareness of Nikkei products. Besides contracted famous athletes to promote their products, Nikkei has made a large number of advertisements through the mass media as well. Nikkei focused on the high priced shoes used for conventional sports with selective-demand advertisements (Goldman S, 2000, Pl 54).

Majoring in International Business

Majoring in International Business Business is more global than ever before. There are a growing number of companies who are conducting commercial operations across borders.  Furthermore, international business  is constantly expanding and evolving. This has created a need for business managers who are well-versed in all aspects of international business. A quality international business degree can be a wonderful springboard for individuals who are interested in securing a position within the global business market. International Business Coursework Business majors who study international business learn how business is conducted within their home country as well as other countries. They focus on learning how to serve customers in international markets, and how to take a local business global. Specific courses may include topics like strategic planning, government relations, and policy analysis. Educational Requirements Educational requirements for business majors who want to work in international business vary, and often depend upon the career goal. Students who want to work as a cultural advisor or in international banking will need more advanced degrees than someone who merely wishes to add knowledge of international business to their management skills arsenal. To get an idea of what types of international business degrees are available, and what you can expect from these degree programs, follow these links: Associate Programs  are two-year introductory programs that consist primarily of general education courses. Most positions in international business will require more than an associates degree.BBA Programs  provide a bachelors level education in business administration and take about four years of full-time study to complete. A BBA degree program will give students the basic knowledge required to secure an entry-level position in international business.MBA Programs  are for business majors who want to work in supervisory positions or other advanced positions, a masters level program in business administration is a good choice. These programs take one to two years to complete. Choosing an International Business Program   There are a growing number of schools that offer programs in international business. If you are a current business major or aspiring business major and are interested in international business, you should carefully research the potential job market, as well as the schools reputation in the field prior to enrolling in an international business program. This will allow you to choose the best career path and the best school before you begin your studies. Careers in International Business After successfully completing an international business program, business majors should be able to secure a number of positions within the business field. The positions graduates are best qualified for will depend on the education received. For example, someone who focused mainly on the marketing aspects of international business will be best suited for a marketing-related position, while students who specialized in the entrepreneurial aspect of ​international business will be prepared to start their own company or offer consulting services to established organizations.

The evolution of the black church Research Paper

The evolution of the black church - Research Paper Example For the purpose of the study, details of the history will start after the American Revolution, an era where the slavery was abolished. By 1810 slaves were totally free; the slave trade in America ended, and a large native born population of African Americans began to increase. This freedom allowed the African-Americans to blend together, to preserve their cultures and to transform their religious beliefs and practices. This period also coincided with the revival of religious evangelization wherein many slaves were converted to evangelical religions like Baptists and Methodists. Evangelists encouraged the message of hope and salvation to the slaves, and advocated the idea that all Christians are equal in the eyes of God. The teachings of the scriptures appealed to the slaves because it inspired them towards hope and salvation and were particularly interested in the stories of deliverance from slavery of Moses’ Exodus out of Egypt. The Africans also found worships that were sim ilar to their own such as clapping, dancing, loud singing and evil spirit possession. Still, whites and the clergy kept on preaching the message of obedience and used Bible stories to justify slavery, and promoted the idea that they will be rewarded after life if they remain loyal and hard-working slaves. The blacks were not allowed to attend church worships independently by their masters for fear that they would plot rebellion. The blacks however were treated differently inside the church.

Among B-Boys Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Among B-Boys Film - Essay Example The chief premise of the film Among B-BOYS, charts the progress and acculturation of this specific community. The film comprises of a compendium of dance battles with a generous flavor of B-Boy styling. The Hmong community living in the Fresno area in California is portrayed in Woon’s film and traces the day to day activities and the lives of those living there. In his earlier film, the director sheds light on the after school activities of the Hmong B-Boys and in his present film he shows how those same characters have grown up and have now moved on to greater things. For example, one of the characters named Sukie those with his elder brother to North Carolina just to escape the hard life in Fresno. Unfortunately, they are forced to settle in Tulsa, Oklahoma and soon find themselves hoped up with a group of Hmongs once again. Twin characters Steven and Michael to go to college at Long Beach State and manage to distinguish themselves during the bee B-boy competitions conducted regionally. However, they remain grounded close to their family. Meanwhile, the older Hmong’s in Fresno, who are in their late twenties still continue to nurture a healthy B-boying attitude instead of resorting to crime, drugs or gang activities. Among B-BOYS Is considered to be a revelation in itself because it has brought to the audience the bigger picture of an American community by cohesively weaving together the modern and the traditional. After viewing the screening of the film Among B-BOYS and discussing in the class on the intricacies of its presentation, I have come to understand the B-BOY culture of hip-hop in a much better manner. On analyzing the film, I could say that it was not only entertaining but also very interesting and informative. Through our discussions in class we came to understand about what views and ideas the others in the group had and the opinions they had formed. Besides learning more about the lives of people in this community we also came to u nderstand about the identity and beliefs shared by this group. 2) Enemies of the people Enemies of the People is a scintillating 93 minute film that took almost a decade to finish. This film is co-directed by Cambodian investigative journalist Thet Sambath and Ron Lemkin. The slaughtering of nearly two million people by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia is explored in the deeply moving documentary titled ‘Enemies of the People’. A winner of the Sundance World Cinema Special Jury Prize: Documentary, this documentary is a watershed account of the genocide that took place in Cambodia. The film is a result of the long and arduous journey of investigative journalist Thet Sambath who devoted a good part of his life to elicit confessions from the leaders and cadres of Khmer Rouge about their role in the genocide. The contents of the film stir the audience by offering a chilling account on how orders were passed down to lower cadres to kill people. In the film the emotional turmoil o f two such executioners is prominently figured. For the first time the number two authority of the Khymer Rouge, Nuon Chea also known as Brother Number Two gives details of how the enemies of the state were killed. These people were executed on orders from Pol Pot and Nuon Chea. This landmark documentary sheds light on the human nature and the capacity of some human beings to do some of the most terrible things

Outline of the Tea Party Platform Essay Example for Free

Outline of the Tea Party Platform Essay Believe that heavy taxes are a burden for those who apply their personal liberty to work hard ? Need for government to protect the freedom of citizens with interference of the government that has exceeded its necessary size or scope. 2. Eliminate National Debt ? there is a need to have fiscal conservative policies at all levels of government ? narrow down the national debt for the good of the average American 3. Protect Free Markets ? Allow free markets to prosper without the infringement of the national government ? Belief that free markets should be protected and are the backbone of the U. S 4. Abide By the Constitution of The United States ? Belief that the U. S Constitution is the supreme law and should be held as so ? Constitution but be upheld in all areas, levels and branches of government 5. Promote Civic Responsibility ? Citizen involvement should be upheld ? Belief that citizen inolment directs the behaviors of the representatives both on a local and national level 6. Reduce the Overall Size Of Government ? Belief that a â€Å"bloated† or overcrowded bureaucracy leads to uneconomical spending ? Reducing the size of governement will than in turn help eliminate inefficiencies that result in deficit spending 7. Believe In The People ? Guaranteed freedoms for the American people will cause then to thrive and grow in a democratic, capitalist enviroment which allows individuals to achieve and go after achievements 8. Maintain Local Independance ? The strength of the Tea Party movement is the ability of citizens at the local level to establish their own platforms ? Belief that each citizen’s voice should be heard

Medieval Art in a Modern World Essay -- Essays Papers

Medieval Art in a Modern World When I was looking at different works of art from the Middle Ages in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (medieval wing), one in particular caught my attention. Entitled â€Å"Plaque with the Crucifixion and the Stabbing of Hades,† this piece embodies life and death, triumph and defeat, divinity and humanity. Carved in ivory, this plaque, depicting the Passion of Christ with an allusion to Hades (god of the underworld), is from the mid-tenth century, or Middle Byzantine era, and was made in Constantinople. The plaque depicts the death of Christ as a triumph over Hades and thus presents a victory for man’s salvation. Centered in the plaque is Christ’s limp body, his head hanging low to the right, arms outstretched, and knees slightly bent. On the left side of the plaque is Mary, Jesus’ mother, mourning the death of her son, the Messiah. On the other side is John the Baptist, also in mourning. Beneath Christ’s feet are three Roman soldiers, shown dividing his garment. Mary, John, and the soldiers are many times portrayed as the main witnesses of Jesus’ suffering for his mercy on humanity. To the immediate left and right of Christ are two angels waiting to escort their Lord back to heaven. Its title is self-descriptive. The plaque itself is intense in representation and represents more generally the religious devotion present in the medieval period. Since Christianity was a very large part of medieval society, the Crucifixion was a central theme in Go...

Lytton Strachey’s excerpt on Florence Nightingale Essay

Lytton Strachey’s excerpt depicts the popular misconceptions and the actual reality of who Florence Nightingale was. Strachey’s euphemism of calling Nightingale â€Å"the Lady with the Lamp† as opposed to the â€Å"agitations of her soul† portrays the idea that her reality was much more different than her false perceptions. Though he admires Nightingale with awe, he conveys his opinion by using dark and tainted diction – â€Å"morbid†, â€Å"Demon possessed her†. Though this might suggest into the thinking that Nightingale was evil and beyond human capabilities, it manifests that she was an extraordinary human with suffrages that make her a stronger individual. Strachey’s syntactical style enables the reader to dilute a clear view of Nightingale’s life. His creative tone in using rhetorical questions eradicates Nightingale’s courageous endeavor and capabilities. From lines 20 to 22, Strachey exhibits the truth that even when her sister had shown a â€Å"healthy pleasure† in tearing up her dolls, she should a â€Å"morbid one† sewing them back up. This idea seems particularly demonic and malevolent (the feeling she expresses while sewing her dolls) because she feels a sense of guilty enjoyment in fixing something that is not perfect. Her gratification is that of healing and â€Å"herself as matron moving about among the beds†. Continuously, these rhetorical questions delineate a fact and expound it further enhancing the reader to fully understand the structure of Nightingale’s motivations and drive. Another strategy that Strachey uses is the use of long and ornate sentences that are broken off by telegraphic ones. This technique enables the audience to feel an utmost sincere admiration for Nightingale (line 2 through 12). With the reader’s emotions at a peak, Strachey quickly halts your train of thought and hits you with a complete opposite idea. This makes the reader more vulnerable to what the author has to say because it catches them at their weakest moment (overflowing with sentiment). Strachey further commends in making Nightingale look like a legendary women who has undergone apotheosis causing the story to become an epic one. By living in the era of the Victorian age, Florence Nightingale’s story is an even more honorable one. This period came with the discrimination of women and their societal roles which intervened with Nightingale’s bourgeoisie  life. Opposing all the luxuries and dealing with the struggle pushed upon her makes her an immense figure in time. She fought for what she wanted: she opposed her family, the elite society, and the status quo that women didn’t work. With this, she possessed the energy to collect knowledge and achieve what she had â€Å"determined she would do in the end†: – gain her independence. Unlike the myths that casted Nightingale to a simple life, she â€Å"was not as facile fancy painted her†. She was a courageous woman who fought for what she believed in, even if it was morbid. In the last paragraph, Strachey defies a quote that her mother gives about Miss Nightingale. In this, she mockingly states that â€Å"We are ducks†¦ who have hatched a wild swan†. This quote, though given by Mrs. Nightingale, represents Florence Nightingale’s perception of her family (taken from the mother viewpoint). In reality she is blind that the idea that Florence has a different path to follow which involves helping the ill-fated humans. It is as if Mrs. Nightingale is embarrassed that she has done something with her life. In reality, Miss Nightingale is â€Å"an eagle†. She casts a brave, bold and independent shadow that wants to soar above the limitations of her family and social class. Florence Nightingale’s strive is marked with accomplishments and greatness because she surpassed all her obstacles, â€Å"held firm, and fought her way to victory†. This suffrage has made her stronger which is one of the reasons Strachey admires her. She did not get her life job on a silver platter; she worked for it, and passed through much hardship, making the prize the more rewarding. His via from the popular perceptions to reality permits the reader to comprehend the illusion and see that the reality was even superior and audacious; â€Å"in the real Miss Nightingale there was more than was interesting than in the legendary one†. Even his melancholic tone and diction towards Nightingale renders the stance that she was an amazing woman and worked her way out of the â€Å"tortures of regret and remorse† that were compelled deep inside her mind.

Orientation for New Employees Essay

Do you believe your design of the detailed organization chart indicates centralized or decentralized lines of authority for decision making? Can you explain your approach in one to two sentences? I do believe that my design is detailed centralized organization. In order for human resources to work, there has to be some type of organization. If there was no organization, HR would not function properly. At the hospital, HR has departments for specific needs. There is a department for Health Benefits and there is a different Coordinator for specific last names. I think it keeps it somewhat organized. Review the chapter text about information flow and Figures 2–2 and 2–3. Do you have â€Å"information flow-sheets† at your organization? What is the purpose for them? Are they always this formalized? Should they be? (If you don’t have a information flow sheet currently make one up for your organization) In the family practice we have two offices, I really did not know about flow sheets. I asked the billing person in the office and she did show me one and it is similar to 2-3. She did explain to me what they  are about and how they function for the office, but I don’t understand it as much. I think because I am more in the clinical side of the office it makes it hard for me to understand how they are used. She did mention they will be changing since the practice was bought out by the hospital. She stated it will be sometime in the upcoming year.

Free Essays on Harriet Jacobs

In Harriet Jacobs story, â€Å"From Incidents of a Slave Girl†, Jacobs discusses the hardships of being a female during slave times. Things such as being separated from her family on different occasions were downfalls that all slaves had to deal with. Throughout her story, Jacobs stays strong and never gives up on the fact that someday there will be brighter days. Jacobs was seemingly very close with her mistress and their children. As Jacobs grew older, she experienced the utmost harassment from her master. He whispered impure statements and his demeanor grew worse and worse. Her mistress, because of her age and the masters’ intentions, grew very jealous of Jacobs. Jacobs looking for someone to confide in had no one to turn to. Her grandmother had always been then for her, but at times like these, Jacobs could not approach her. Jacobs’ grandmother was a very proper lady that instilled that purity upon her granddaughter. She would not be able to deal with such impure things such as the sexual harassment that Jacobs encountered.... Free Essays on Harriet Jacobs Free Essays on Harriet Jacobs In the stories expressed by Harriet Jacobs, through the mindset of Linda Brent, some harsh realities were revealed about slavery. I’ve always known slavery existed and that it was a very immoral act. But never before have I been introduced to actual events that occurred. Thought the book Linda expresses how she wasn’t the worst off. Not to say her life wasn’t difficult, but she acknowledged that she knows she was not treated as bad as others. Linda’s life was without knowing she was a slave until she was bout six years old. Her father was skilled craftsmen and so his was allowed to work for his profit as long as he gave half to his master. Linda’s mother died when Linda was young, so her maternal grandmother took car of her and her brother William. Her grandmother had been freed by an elderly white woman. Aunt Martha, as was known, was very loved by many including whites and blacks especially by Linda. As soon as she realized her fate in slavery her grandmother became her only female figure of who she really loved and trusted. As slavery became more and more a part of Linda’s life began to soon change as she learned that she was owned by a white master and his mistress and that she was to do exactly what they asked of her without exception or question. Black slaves were not seen as humans but merely as property who served as servants. They could not accumulate property or belongings or authority because they too were property often compared to â€Å"chattel†. No man or woman had any value except for the price tag placed on them when they entered the bidding block. However, the destiny was different for a man than for a woman in slavery. For a black man, slavery meant long hours everyday, having a family But not having any authority amongst it, dealing with the constant reminder that he as a slave could not protect his wife or children form any harm done by the master, and that if he ever disobeyed he... Free Essays on Harriet Jacobs In Harriet Jacobs story, â€Å"From Incidents of a Slave Girl†, Jacobs discusses the hardships of being a female during slave times. Things such as being separated from her family on different occasions were downfalls that all slaves had to deal with. Throughout her story, Jacobs stays strong and never gives up on the fact that someday there will be brighter days. Jacobs was seemingly very close with her mistress and their children. As Jacobs grew older, she experienced the utmost harassment from her master. He whispered impure statements and his demeanor grew worse and worse. Her mistress, because of her age and the masters’ intentions, grew very jealous of Jacobs. Jacobs looking for someone to confide in had no one to turn to. Her grandmother had always been then for her, but at times like these, Jacobs could not approach her. Jacobs’ grandmother was a very proper lady that instilled that purity upon her granddaughter. She would not be able to deal with such impure things such as the sexual harassment that Jacobs encountered....

How to Respond to a Request for a Writing Critique

How to Respond to a Request for a Writing Critique How to Respond to a Request for a Writing Critique How to Respond to a Request for a Writing Critique By Mark Nichol You’ve been asked to critique another person’s writing. Perhaps you’re in a writing group. Maybe a colleague has a novel, or a short story, or a collection of their poems, they want to share with you. Or it may be a friend, or a family member, who requests your help. Easy, right? Not at all. Your response will be based on a variety of factors. First, who, exactly, is this person making this perfectly reasonable but deceptively simple-sounding request? How well do you know them, and how comfortable are you with critiquing their writing and they with receiving the criticism? And when they asked you for your assistance, how, precisely, did they pose their request? When someone asks you, in a context outside a professional working relationship, to look over something they wrote, your first response should be, â€Å"What, precisely, would you like me to do?† Their answer will depend, of course, on both their familiarity with the critiquing process and their self-awareness. If they respond that they just want assurance that their work is readable, that they’re headed in the right direction, that the concept and the narrative are potentially appealing to a wide readership, you have it relatively easy. You’ll simply be reading the piece of writing and spending a matter of minutes sharing, in writing or in conversation, your general impressions. But you’re still confronted with the possibility that your honest answer to their question â€Å"Is it any good?† will be no. I’ll get back to that in a moment. If they ask for a more substantial review, one involving notes and/or revisions, because they know you have writing and/or editing experience and can give them guidance, make sure you mention two things: One, they must know the distinction between substantive and mechanical editing. Two, they need to understand what they’ve asked of you. Substantive editing involves reviewing a piece of writing holistically, examining its structure, pacing, and overall impact, and determining whether it is well organized or would be improved with shuffling of sentences, paragraphs, or sections. (Rare is the early draft of a piece of writing that is not improved with at least some reorganization.) A substantive editor will also make occasional notes about phrasing or word choice. Mechanical editing, by contrast, is attention to grammar, syntax, style, spelling, punctuation, and other minutiae though a limited holistic appraisal is part of the process. Once you’re confident that the difference is understood, let the supplicant know that it’s best to manage these distinct tasks in two stages, and that at this point, during the draft stage, only the substantive review will be productive. I suggested earlier that you bring up two issues. The other thing you must do is manage expectations about your commitment of time and energy. Many beginning writers haven’t acquired a perspective about how long editing takes. Make it clear that for you to do anything more than read for general impressions, in order to give the piece of writing the attention it deserves, you would expect to be able to get through only a few pages per hour. For that reason, you would like them to select a chapter from the novel or a section of the short story or a reasonably small fraction of the collected poems for you to review, and to be patient about a response. Remember that part above about me getting back to you about something? That something is honest appraisal. I’ll go into detail in another post about how to appraise, but here is a brief caution: In agreeing to critique someone’s writing, whether superficially or in depth, you are agreeing to respond truthfully about someone’s success in communicating heartfelt expression about something that means a lot to them. As obvious as that may seem to you, I suggest that your response include something like this: â€Å"Understand that no matter how good a writer you are, there will be areas for improvement, and I want to be honest with you about them so that you can become even better. I’d expect no less from you if you looked over something I’ve written. So, unless you’ve done multiple drafts and had someone do substantive editing and someone else do mechanical editing, be prepared for the fact I’m going to find things in your writing that need work. Also, it’s possible that what you’ve written may appeal to others but not to me, but if that’s the case, I’ll still try to advise you about what you can do to make it even more appealing to others.† This statement may seem unduly frank and intimidating, but I think it’s important that you say it. By stating something like this up front, you’re not implying that the writer is a fragile narcissist who will crumble at the slightest hint of criticism; you’re preparing them to get what they asked for: a candid, productive evaluation of something they’ve put a lot of time and effort into but must be prepared to work on even more before it is ready for publication, if that is their goal. And if you must forthrightly state your opinion that the writer should abandon the idea (but not their desire to share other ideas), or that the presentation is awkward or ineffective (but has potential for success if they’re willing to put a lot more work into it), you’ve done your duty, and it is the other person’s responsibility to accept your conclusions with good grace. But be sure to preface the medicine with a spoonful of sugar: Find something positive to begin your report. I’ll go into more detail about that and other appraisal techniques in a later post. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:7 Types of Narrative Conflict50 Idioms About Fruits and Vegetables10 Terms for the Common People

Company Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Company Security - Essay Example The needs of users of  the data provided via a network and subsequently develop a security policy and plan that addresses the security issues concerned (Langer, 2001). The ensuing distribution of data in client or server networks leads to increased susceptibility of the system to fraud, damage by malicious software, misuse, as well as physical damage. With business organizations and their stakeholders developing complex networks, security issues become a key factor of consideration. The security systems developed by such organizations must seek to protect all areas of concern across the network to prevent the occurrence of unethical practices in relation to the information flowing through the system. The value of security in a client/server network plays an inevitable role in protecting the data, as well as the ethical concerns of the parties involved thus, requiring the development of a comprehensive network security policy as reviewed in this context and with reference to ZXY Cor poration. In order to enhance secure access control over the network, the company can apply advanced authorization, as well as access control methodologies that would subsequently enhance network security. The interrelated methods of user authentication and authorization that are applicable will depend on the sensitivity of the section of the network and the information that may be accessible. Shared resources in the network are available for all the users except the resource owner. As such, the security system needs to protect such information from unauthorized access and use. In the network’s access control framework, unique security identifiers (SIDs) may embody the users in the system, and they are subsequently assigned permissions and rights that provide information to the operating system concerning what each of the users can do in the system. Each of the resources in the network has a designated owner who grants  permission  to users. In

Case studing (nursing science) Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Studing (nursing science) - Case Study Example His heart rate is increasing as well as his breathe per minutes. At his age, excitement is very much increased and is there for increasing also the cardiovascular activity. The cardiovascular system helps transport oxygen and nutrients to tissues, transport carbon dioxide and other metabolites to the lungs and kidneys, and distribute hormones throughout the body. The cardiovascular system also assists with thermoregulation. The runner's sympathetic nervous system is activated (central command), and catecholamines are released from the adrenal medulla. This is the reason in cardiac acceleration, increased myocardial contractility, increased cardiac output, peripheral vasoconstriction, and an increase in blood pressure. As the race started the following factors in the cardiovascular system are considered: the heart rate, peripheral resistance, skin blood flow, cardiac output, and blood flow distribution. Cardiovascular changes at the start of the game include the compression of the blood vessels in the contracting muscle leading to a reduction in the blood flow. Heart rate continues to increase during the race, until the rate reaches a plateau of about 180 beats/min at maximum effort. Peripheral resistance decreases because of relaxation of arterioles in active muscle and skin (as body temperature rises). Skin blood flow increases, which aids in heat loss. Blood flow to inactive muscle, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract is reduced. Because BP is a major determinant of afterload, the left ventricular wall stress, and thus the cardiac workload, is significantly higher. As the intensity of the race increases the BP is also increasing from 120 mmHg to approximately 200 mmHg. Maximum oxygen uptake leve l (VO2max) is reached during this state. Cardiac output increases during the race until 40% of VO2max (maximum oxygen uptake level) is reached. Cardiac output rises from approximately 80 mL/beat to approximately 120 mL/beat. HR increases with intensity until VO2max is reached. HR rises from approximately 70 beats per minute to approximately 200 beats per minute. Cardiac output increases with intensity until VO2max is reached. Cardiac output rises from approximately 5 L/min to approximately 25-30 L/min. (Suleman, 2006). The race is almost over the athletes are chasing to cross the finish line first. There is an increase in PaCO2 in the Kenyan athlete. PACO2 represents the amount of CO2 in solution. When there is an increase in blood PACO2, there is an increase in ventilation. During this stage more oxygen is needed and more CO2 and metabolic acid are produced. There is an increased cardiac output because the tissues need more oxygen supplied to them. This is also caused due to an increase of lung ventilation to support gas tensions in arterial blood, which experiences faster blood flow. When an individual is on the move, the venous blood shows signs of decreased O2 levels, increased CO2 levels, and an increase in H+ levels. During the race the blood flow to the leg muscles increases because of the local factors, which includes: the release of vasodilator metabolites (e.g. adenosine); the increase in muscle temperature; and the local decreased in pH (increased CO2 and lactic acid). The arterioles dilate and more capillaries open (capillary recruitment). Venous return is facilitated in running by the following: sympathetic-mediated contraction of capacitance vessels ; muscle compression of the leg veins with one-way

Collaboration and Consultation in Education Research Paper

Collaboration and Consultation in Education - Research Paper Example According to the research findings, it can, therefore, be said that collaborative learning is accomplished through the use of active engagement activities designed to exploit knowledge and to facilitate the sharing of the workload. In this method, learners can generate their individual parts of a larger assignment and then the parts are compiled as a group work. Collaboration is also a style employed by professionals in order to achieve a common and a shared goal. There are several terminologies that may be used interchangeably when discussing cooperation strategies. These terms include consultation, teamwork, collaborative work and collaborative consultation. However, the collaboration will be employed in this paper as the umbrella concept for the various collaborative strategies. Furthermore, there are different forms in which collaboration techniques are created. These are the student collaboration, teacher-student collaboration, teacher-parent collaboration, and student-parent co llaboration. All these forms of cooperation are primarily meant to help enhance the learning process of a student and to ensure they achieve the best in education. Collaboration is both advantageous in teaching and learning when it happens on various levels. Collective prioritizing of education by the students, teachers, members of a family, and the community as a whole is beneficial to teaching and learning process. The benefits will be more felt when all the stakeholders engage in activities that promote learning institutions, educators, and students. Additionally, the advantage of collaboration becomes more evident when teachers collaborate with other teachers to support innovative classroom practices. And aim at the high level of expectations for themselves and students as well. Further, the benefits of collaboration can be achieved more when students are granted the chance to work together for common academic goals in manners that improve learning.

Predicting Effects of Environmental Contaminants

Predicting Effects of Environmental Contaminants 1.1. Debunking some chemical myths†¦ In October 2008, the Royal Society of Chemistry announced they were offering  £1 million to the first member of the public that could bring a 100% chemical free material. This attempt to reclaim the word ‘chemical from the advertising and marketing industries that use it as a synonym for poison was a reaction to a decision of the Advertising Standards Authority to defend an advert perpetuating the myths that natural products were chemical free (Edwards 2008). Indeed, no material regardless of its origin is chemical free. A related common misconception is that chemicals made by nature are intrinsically good and, conversely, those manufactured by man are bad (Ottoboni 1991). There are many examples of toxic compounds produced by algae or other micro-organisms, venomous animals and plants, or even examples of environmental harm resulting from the presence of relatively benign natural compounds either in unexpected places or in unexpected quantities. It is therefore of prime impo rtance to define what is meant by ‘chemical when referring to chemical hazards in this chapter and the rest of this book. The correct term to describe a chemical compound an organism may be exposed to, whether of natural or synthetic origins, is xenobiotic, i.e. a substance foreign to an organism (the term has also been used for transplants). A xenobiotic can be defined as a chemical which is found in an organism but which is not normally produced or expected to be present in it. It can also cover substances which are present in much higher concentrations than are usual. A grasp of some of the fundamental principles of the scientific disciplines that underlie the characterisation of effects associated with exposure to a xenobiotic is required in order to understand the potential consequences of the presence of pollutants in the environment and critically appraise the scientific evidence. This chapter will attempt to briefly summarise some important concepts of basic toxicology and environmental epidemiology relevant in this context. 1.2. Concepts of Fundamental Toxicology Toxicology is the science of poisons. A poison is commonly defined as ‘any substance that can cause an adverse effect as a result of a physicochemical interaction with living tissue'(Duffus 2006). The use of poisons is as old as the human race, as a method of hunting or warfare as well as murder, suicide or execution. The evolution of this scientific discipline cannot be separated from the evolution of pharmacology, or the science of cures. Theophrastus Phillippus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim, more commonly known as Paracelsus (1493-1541), a physician contemporary of Copernicus, Martin Luther and da Vinci, is widely considered as the father of toxicology. He challenged the ancient concepts of medicine based on the balance of the four humours (blood, phlegm, yellow and black bile) associated with the four elements and believed illness occurred when an organ failed and poisons accumulated. This use of chemistry and chemical analogies was particularly offensive to his contempo rary medical establishment. He is famously credited the following quote that still underlies present-day toxicology. In other words, all substances are potential poisons since all can cause injury or death following excessive exposure. Conversely, this statement implies that all chemicals can be used safely if handled with appropriate precautions and exposure is kept below a defined limit, at which risk is considered tolerable (Duffus 2006). The concepts both of tolerable risk and adverse effect illustrate the value judgements embedded in an otherwise scientific discipline relying on observable, measurable empirical evidence. What is considered abnormal or undesirable is dictated by society rather than science. Any change from the normal state is not necessarily an adverse effect even if statistically significant. An effect may be considered harmful if it causes damage, irreversible change or increased susceptibility to other stresses, including infectious disease. The stage of development or state of health of the organism may also have an influence on the degree of harm. 1.2.1. Routes of exposure Toxicity will vary depending on the route of exposure. There are three routes via which exposure to environmental contaminants may occur; Ingestion Inhalation Skin adsorption Direct injection may be used in environmental toxicity testing. Toxic and pharmaceutical agents generally produce the most rapid response and greatest effect when given intravenously, directly into the bloodstream. A descending order of effectiveness for environmental exposure routes would be inhalation, ingestion and skin adsorption. Oral toxicity is most relevant for substances that might be ingested with food or drinks. Whilst it could be argued that this is generally under an individuals control, there are complex issues regarding information both about the occurrence of substances in food or water and the current state-of-knowledge about associated harmful effects. Gases, vapours and dusts or other airborne particles are inhaled involuntarily (with the infamous exception of smoking). The inhalation of solid particles depends upon their size and shape. In general, the smaller the particle, the further into the respiratory tract it can go. A large proportion of airborne particles breathed through the mouth or cleared by the cilia of the lungs can enter the gut. Dermal exposure generally requires direct and prolonged contact with the skin. The skin acts as a very effective barrier against many external toxicants, but because of its great surface area (1.5-2 m2), some of the many diverse substances it comes in contact with may still elicit topical or systemic effects (Williams and Roberts 2000). If dermal exposure is often most relevant in occupational settings, it may nonetheless be pertinent in relation to bathing waters (ingestion is an important route of exposure in this context). Voluntary dermal exposure related to the use of cosmetics raises the same questions regarding the adequate communication of current knowledge about potential effects as those related to food. 1.2.2. Duration of exposure The toxic response will also depend on the duration and frequency of exposure. The effect of a single dose of a chemical may be severe effects whilst the same dose total dose given at several intervals may have little if any effect. An example would be to compare the effects of drinking four beers in one evening to those of drinking four beers in four days. Exposure duration is generally divided into four broad categories; acute, sub-acute, sub-chronic and chronic. Acute exposure to a chemical usually refers to a single exposure event or repeated exposures over a duration of less than 24 hours. Sub-acute exposure to a chemical refers to repeated exposures for 1 month or less, sub-chronic exposure to continuous or repeated exposures for 1 to 3 months or approximately 10% of an experimental species life time and chronic exposure for more than 3 months, usually 6 months to 2 years in rodents (Eaton and Klaassen 2001). Chronic exposure studies are designed to assess the cumulative toxici ty of chemicals with potential lifetime exposure in humans. In real exposure situations, it is generally very difficult to ascertain with any certainty the frequency and duration of exposure but the same terms are used. For acute effects, the time component of the dose is not important as a high dose is responsible for these effects. However if acute exposure to agents that are rapidly absorbed is likely to induce immediate toxic effects, it does not rule out the possibility of delayed effects that are not necessarily similar to those associated with chronic exposure, e.g. latency between the onset of certain cancers and exposure to a carcinogenic substance. It may be worth here mentioning the fact that the effect of exposure to a toxic agent may be entirely dependent on the timing of exposure, in other words long-term effects as a result of exposure to a toxic agent during a critically sensitive stage of development may differ widely to those seen if an adult organism is exposed to the same substance. Acute effects are almost always the result of accidents. Otherwise, they may result from criminal poisoning or self-poisoning (suicide). Conversely, whilst chronic exposure to a toxic agent is general ly associated with long-term low-level chronic effects, this does not preclude the possibility of some immediate (acute) effects after each administration. These concepts are closely related to the mechanisms of metabolic degradation and excretion of ingested substances and are best illustrated by 1.1. Line A. chemical with very slow elimination. Line B. chemical with a rate of elimination equal to frequency of dosing. Line C. Rate of elimination faster than the dosing frequency. Blue-shaded area is representative of the concentration at the target site necessary to elicit a toxic response. 1.2.3. Mechanisms of toxicity The interaction of a foreign compound with a biological system is two-fold: there is the effect of the organism on the compound (toxicokinetics) and the effect of the compound on the organism (toxicodynamics). Toxicokinetics relate to the delivery of the compound to its site of action, including absorption (transfer from the site of administration into the general circulation), distribution (via the general circulation into and out of the tissues), and elimination (from general circulation by metabolism or excretion). The target tissue refers to the tissue where a toxicant exerts its effect, and is not necessarily where the concentration of a toxic substance is higher. Many halogenated compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or flame retardants such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are known to bioaccumulate in body fat stores. Whether such sequestration processes are actually protective to the individual organisms, i.e. by lowering the concentration of the toxicant at the site of action is not clear (OFlaherty 2000). In an ecological context however, such bioaccumulation may serve as an indirect route of exposure for organisms at higher trophic levels, thereby potentia lly contributing to biomagnification through the food chain. Absorption of any compound that has not been directed intravenously injected will entail transfer across membrane barriers before it reaches the systemic circulation, and the efficiency of absorption processes is highly dependent on the route of exposure. It is also important to note that distribution and elimination, although often considered separately, take place simultaneously. Elimination itself comprises of two kinds of processes, excretion and biotransformation, that are also taking place simultaneously. Elimination and distribution are not independent of each other as effective elimination of a compounds will prevent its distribution in peripheral tissues, whilst conversely, wide distribution of a compound will impede its excretion (OFlaherty 2000). Kinetic models attempt to predict the concentration of a toxicant at the target site from the administered dose. If often the ultimate toxicant, i.e. the chemical species that induces structural or functional alterations resulting in toxicity, is the compound administered (parent compound), it can also be a metabolite of the parent compound generated by biotransformation processes, i.e. toxication rather than detoxication (Timbrell 2000; Gregus and Klaassen 2001). The liver and kid neys are the most important excretory organs for non-volatile substances, whilst the lungs are active in the excretion of volatile compounds and gases. Other routes of excretion include the skin, hair, sweat, nails and milk. Milk may be a major route of excretion for lipophilic chemicals due to its high fat content (OFlaherty 2000). Toxicodynamics is the study of toxic response at the site of action, including the reactions with and binding to cell constituents, and the biochemical and physiological consequences of these actions. Such consequences may therefore be manifested and observed at the molecular or cellular levels, at the target organ or on the whole organism. Therefore, although toxic responses have a biochemical basis, the study of toxic response is generally subdivided either depending on the organ on which toxicity is observed, including hepatotoxicity (liver), nephrotoxicity (kidney), neurotoxicity (nervous system), pulmonotoxicity (lung) or depending on the type of toxic response, including teratogenicity (abnormalities of physiological development), immunotoxicity (immune system impairment), mutagenicity (damage of genetic material), carcinogenicity (cancer causation or promotion). The choice of the toxicity endpoint to observe in experimental toxicity testing is therefore of critical importance. In recent years, rapid advances of biochemical sciences and technology have resulted in the development of bioassay techniques that can contribute invaluable information regarding toxicity mechanisms at the cellular and molecular level. However, the extrapolation of such information to predict effects in an intact organism for the purpose of risk assessment is still in its infancy (Gundert -Remy et al. 2005). 1.2.4. Dose-response relationships 83A7DC81The theory of dose-response relationships is based on the assumptions that the activity of a substance is not an inherent quality but depends on the dose an organism is exposed to, i.e. all substances are inactive below a certain threshold and active over that threshold, and that dose-response relationships are monotonic, the response rises with the dose. Toxicity may be detected either as all-or-nothing phenomenon such as the death of the organism or as a graded response such as the hypertrophy of a specific organ. The dose-response relationship involves correlating the severity of the response with exposure (the dose). Dose-response relationships for all-or-nothing (quantal) responses are typically S-shaped and this reflects the fact that sensitivity of individuals in a population generally exhibits a normal or Gaussian distribution. Biological variation in susceptibility, with fewer individuals being either hypersusceptible or resistant at both end of the curve and the maj ority responding between these two extremes, gives rise to a bell-shaped normal frequency distribution. When plotted as a cumulative frequency distribution, a sigmoid dose-response curve is observed ( 1.2). Studying dose response, and developing dose response models, is central to determining safe and hazardous levels. The simplest measure of toxicity is lethality and determination of the median lethal dose, the LD50 is usually the first toxicological test performed with new substances. The LD50 is the dose at which a substance is expected to cause the death of half of the experimental animals and it is derived statistically from dose-response curves (Eaton and Klaassen 2001). LD50 values are the standard for comparison of acute toxicity between chemical compounds and between species. Some values are given in Table 1.1. It is important to note that the higher the LD50, the less toxic the compound. Similarly, the EC50, the median effective dose, is the quantity of the chemical that is estimated to have an effect in 50% of the organisms. However, median doses alone are not very informative, as they do not convey any information on the shape of the dose-response curve. This is best illustrated by 1.3. While toxicant A appears (always) more toxic than toxicant B on the basis of its lower LD50, toxicant B will start affecting organisms at lower doses (lower threshold) while the steeper slope for the dose-response curve for toxicant A means that once individuals become overexposed (exceed the threshold dose), the increase in response occurs over much smaller increments in dose. Low dose responses The classical paradigm for extrapolating dose-response relationships at low doses is based on the concept of threshold for non-carcinogens, whereas it assumes that there is no threshold for carcinogenic responses and a linear relationship is hypothesised (s 1.4 and 1.5). The NOAEL (No Observed Adverse Effect Level) is the exposure level at which there is no statistically or biologically significant increase in the frequency or severity of adverse effects between exposed population and its appropriate control. The NOEL for the most sensitive test species and the most sensitive indicator of toxicity is usually employed for regulatory purposes. The LOAEL (Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level) is the lowest exposure level at which there is a statistically or biologically significant increase in the frequency or severity of adverse effects between exposed population and its appropriate control. The main criticism of NOAEL and LOAEL is that there are dependent on study design, i.e. the dose groups selected and the number of individuals in each group. Statistical methods of deriving the concentration that produces a specific effect ECx, or a benchmark dose (BMD), the statistical lower confidence limit on the dose that produces a defined response (the benchm ark response or BMR), are increasingly preferred. To understand the risk that environmental contaminants pose to human health requires the extrapolation of limited data from animal experimental studies to the low doses critically encountered in the environment. Such extrapolation of dose-response relationships at low doses is the source of much controversy. Recent advances in the statistical analysis of very large populations exposed to ambient concentrations of environmental pollutants have however not observed thresholds for cancer or non-cancer outcomes (White et al. 2009). The actions of chemical agents are triggered by complex molecular and cellular events that may lead to cancer and non-cancer outcomes in an organism. These processes may be linear or non-linear at an individual level. A thorough understanding of critical steps in a toxic process may help refine current assumptions about thresholds (Boobis et al. 2009). The dose-response curve however describes the response or variation in sensitivity of a population. Biologica l and statistical attributes such as population variability, additivity to pre-existing conditions or diseases induced at background exposure will tend to smooth and linearise the dose-response relationship, obscuring individual thresholds. Hormesis Dose-response relationships for substances that are essential for normal physiological function and survival are actually U-shaped. At very low doses, adverse effects are observed due to a deficiency. As the dose of such an essential nutrient is increased, the adverse effect is no longer detected and the organism can function normally in a state of homeostasis. Abnormally high doses however, can give rise to a toxic response. This response may be qualitatively different and the toxic endpoint measured at very low and very high doses is not necessarily the same. There is evidence that nonessential substances may also impart an effect at very low doses ( 1.6). Some authors have argued that hormesis ought to be the default assumption in the risk assessment of toxic substances (Calabrese and Baldwin 2003). Whether such low dose effects should be considered stimulatory or beneficial is controversial. Further, potential implications of the concept of hormesis for the risk management of the combinations of the wide variety of environmental contaminants present at low doses that individuals with variable sensitivity may be exposed to are at best unclear. 1.2.5. Chemical interactions In regulatory hazard assessment, chemical hazard are typically considered on a compound by compound basis, the possibility of chemical interactions being accounted for by the use of safety or uncertainty factors. Mixture effects still represent a challenge for the risk management of chemicals in the environment, as the presence of one chemical may alter the response to another chemical. The simplest interaction is additivity: the effect of two or more chemicals acting together is equivalent to the sum of the effects of each chemical in the mixture when acting independently. Synergism is more complex and describes a situation when the presence of both chemicals causes an effect that is greater than the sum of their effects when acting alone. In potentiation, a substance that does not produce specific toxicity on its own increases the toxicity of another substance when both are present. Antagonism is the principle upon which antidotes are based whereby a chemical can reduce the harm ca used by a toxicant (James et al. 2000; Duffus 2006). Mathematical illustrations and examples of known chemical interactions are given in Table 1.2. Table 1.2. Mathematical representations of chemical interactions (reproduced from James et al., 2000) Effect Hypothetical mathematical illustration Example Additive 2 + 3 = 5 Organophosphate pesticides Synergistic 2 + 3 = 20 Cigarette smoking + asbestos Potentiation 2 + 0 = 10 Alcohol + carbon tetrachloride Antagonism 6 + 6 = 8 or 5 + (-5) = 0 or 10 + 0 = 2 Toluene + benzene Caffeine + alcohol Dimercaprol + mercury There are four main ways in which chemicals may interact (James et al. 2000); 1. Functional: both chemicals have an effect on the same physiological function. 2. Chemical: a chemical reaction between the two compounds affects the toxicity of one or both compounds. 3. Dispositional: the absorption, metabolism, distribution or excretion of one substance is increased or decreased by the presence of the other. 4. Receptor-mediated: when two chemicals have differing affinity and activity for the same receptor, competition for the receptor will modify the overall effect. 1.2.6. Relevance of animal models A further complication in the extrapolation of the results of toxicological experimental studies to humans, or indeed other untested species, is related to the anatomical, physiological and biochemical differences between species. This paradoxically requires some previous knowledge of the mechanism of toxicity of a chemical and comparative physiology of different test species. When adverse effects are detected in screening tests, these should be interpreted with the relevance of the animal model chosen in mind. For the derivation of safe levels, safety or uncertainty factors are again usually applied to account for the uncertainty surrounding inter-species differences (James et al. 2000; Sullivan 2006). 1.2.7. A few words about doses When discussing dose-response, it is also important to understand which dose is being referred to and differentiate between concentrations measured in environmental media and the concentration that will illicit an adverse effect at the target organ or tissue. The exposure dose in a toxicological testing setting is generally known or can be readily derived or measured from concentrations in media and average consumption (of food or water for example) ( 1.7.). Whilst toxicokinetics help to develop an understanding of the relationship between the internal dose and a known exposure dose, relating concentrations in environmental media to the actual exposure dose, often via multiple pathways, is in the realm of exposure assessment. 1.2.8. Other hazard characterisation criteria Before continuing further, it is important to clarify the difference between hazard and risk. Hazard is defined as the potential to produce harm, it is therefore an inherent qualitative attribute of a given chemical substance. Risk on the other hand is a quantitative measure of the magnitude of the hazard and the probability of it being realised. Hazard assessment is therefore the first step of risk assessment, followed by exposure assessment and finally risk characterization. Toxicity is not the sole criterion evaluated for hazard characterisation purposes. Some chemicals have been found in the tissues of animals in the arctic for example, where these substances of concern have never been used or produced. This realization that some pollutants were able to travel far distances across national borders because of their persistence, and bioaccumulate through the food web, led to the consideration of such inherent properties of organic compounds alongside their toxicity for the purpose of hazard characterisation. Persistence is the result of resistance to environmental degradation mechanisms such as hydrolysis, photodegradation and biodegradation. Hydrolysis only occurs in the presence of water, photodegradation in the presence of UV light and biodegradation is primarily carried out by micro-organisms. Degradation is related to water solubility, itself inversely related to lipid solubility, therefore persistence tends to be correlated to lipid solubility (Francis 1994). The persistence of inorganic substances has proven more difficult to define as they cannot be degraded to carbon and water. Chemicals may accumulate in environmental compartments and constitute environmental sinks that could be re-mobilised and lead to effects. Further, whilst substances may accumulate in one species without adverse effects, it may be toxic to its predator(s). Bioconcentration refers to accumulation of a chemical from its surrounding environment rather than specifically through food uptake. Conversely, biomagnification refers to uptake from food without consideration for uptake through the body surface. Bioaccumulation integrates both paths, surrounding medium and food. Ecological magnification refers to an increase in concentration through the food web from lower to higher trophic levels. Again, accumulation of organic compounds generally involves transfer from a hydrophilic to a hydrophobic phase and correlates well with the n-octanol/water partition coefficient (Herrchen 2006). Persistence and bioaccumulation of a substance is evaluated by standardised OECD tests. Criteria for the identification of persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic substances (PBT), and very persistent and very bioaccumulative substances (vPvB) as defined in Annex XIII of the European Directive on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) (Union 2006) are given in table 1.3. To be classified as a PBT or vPvB substance, a given compound must fulfil all criteria. Table 1.3. REACH criteria for identifying PBT and vPvB chemicals Criterion PBT criteria vPvB criteria Persistence Either: Half-life > 60 days in marine water Half-life > 60 days in fresh or estuarine water Half-life > 180 days in marine sediment Half-life > 120 days in fresh or estuarine sediment Half-life > 120 days in soil Either: Half-life > 60 days in marine, fresh or estuarine water Half-life > 180 days in marine, fresh or estuarine sediment Half-life > 180 days in soil Bioaccumulation Bioconcentration factor (BCF) > 2000 Bioconcentration factor (BCF) > 2000 Toxicity Either: Chronic no-observed effect concentration (NOEC) substance is classified as carcinogenic (category 1 or 2), mutagenic (category 1 or 2), or toxic for reproduction (category 1, 2 or 3) there is other evidence of endocrine disrupting effects 1.3. Some notions of Environmental Epidemiology A complementary, observational approach to the study of scientific evidence of associations between environment and disease is epidemiology. Epidemiology can be defined as â€Å"the study of how often diseases occur and why, based on the measurement of disease outcome in a study sample in relation to a population at risk.† (Coggon et al. 2003). Environmental epidemiology refers to the study of patterns and disease and health related to exposures that are exogenous and involuntary. Such exposures generally occur in the air, water, diet, or soil and include physical, chemical and biologic agents. The extent to which environmental epidemiology is considered to include social, political, cultural, and engineering or architectural factors affecting human contact with such agents varies according to authors. In some contexts, the environment can refer to all non-genetic factors, although dietary habits are generally excluded, despite the facts that some deficiency diseases are envir onmentally determined and nutritional status may also modify the impact of an environmental exposure (Steenland and Savitz 1997; Hertz-Picciotto 1998). Most of environmental epidemiology is concerned with endemics, in other words acute or chronic disease occurring at relatively low frequency in the general population due partly to a common and often unsuspected exposure, rather than epidemics, or acute outbreaks of disease affecting a limited population shortly after the introduction of an unusual known or unknown agent. Measuring such low level exposure to the general public may be difficult when not impossible, particularly when seeking historical estimates of exposure to predict future disease. Estimating very small changes in the incidence of health effects of low-level common multiple exposure on common diseases with multifactorial etiologies is particularly difficult because often greater variability may be expected for other reasons, and environmental epidemiology has to rely on natural experiments that unlike controlled experiment are subject to confounding to other, often unknown, risk factors. However, it may still be of i mportance from a public health perspective as small effects in a large population can have large attributable risks if the disease is common (Steenland and Savitz 1997; Coggon et al. 2003). 1.3.1. Definitions What is a case? The definition of a case generally requires a dichotomy, i.e. for a given condition, people can be divided into two discrete classes the affected and the non-affected. It increasingly appears that diseases exist in a continuum of severity within a population rather than an all or nothing phenomenon. For practical reasons, a cut-off point to divide the diagnostic continuum into ‘cases and ‘non-cases is therefore required. This can be done on a statistical, clinical, prognostic or operational basis. On a statistical basis, the ‘norm is often defined as within two standard deviations of the age-specific mean, thereby arbitrarily fixing the frequency of abnormal values at around 5% in every population. Moreover, it should be noted that what is usual is not necessarily good. A clinical case may be defined by the level of a variable above which symptoms and complications have been found to become more frequent. On a prognostic basis, some clinical findings may carry an a dverse prognosis, yet be symptomless. When none of the other approaches is satisfactory, an operational threshold will need to be defined, e.g. based on a threshold for treatment (Coggon et al. 2003). Incidence, prevalence and mortality The incidence of a disease is the rate at which new cases occur in a population during a specified period or frequency of incidents. Incidence = The prevalence of a disease is the proportion of the population that are cases at a given point in time. This measure is appropriate only in relatively stable conditions and is unsuitable for acute disorders. Even in a chronic disease, the manifestations are often intermittent and a point prevalence will tend to underestimate the frequency of the condition. A better measure when possible is the period prevalence defined as the proportion of a population that are cases at any time within a stated pe